Ebert Dietrich - Physiological aspects of yoga. Dietrich Ebert. Physiological aspects of yoga. The traditional view of the human body

Physiological aspects of Yoga. Ebert D.

Per. with him. - St. Petersburg, 1999. - 160 p.

The book provides an introduction to yoga itself, but focuses on the physiological processes that underlie the exercises of yoga practice.

This concerns the physiological mechanisms of maintaining posture and muscle tone, energy shifts, cardiovascular, respiratory and endocrine systems, metabolic processes. Considerable attention is also paid to the activity of various parts of the nervous system.

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CONTENT
PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definition of Yoga
1.2. The construction of classical yoga
1.3. The traditional view of the human body
1.4. Yoga and physiology
2. YAMA and NIYAMA
2.1. Yama and Niyama Precepts
2.2. Yoga Cleansing Treatments
2.3. Yoga Diet
3. ASANA (POSE)
3.1. Definition and classification of asanas.
3.2. Mechanically conditioned effects of asanas on internal organs
3.3 Effects on blood circulation
3.4. Functional and energy aspects of asanas
3.5. Biomechanical aspects of asanas
3.6. Somatosensory effects of asanas
3.7. Sensorimotor aspects of asanas
4. Pranayama
4.1 Prana theories
4.2 Pranayama techniques
4.3. Breathing forms and pranayama parameters
4.4. Energy exchange in pranayama
4.5. Effects of pranayama in circulation
4.6. The role of respiration in the human body
5. MEDITATION
5.1. The concept of meditation
5.2. Meditation Techniques
5.3. Physiological Effects of Meditation
5.4. The Psychophysiological Significance of Meditation
6. YOGA AND ADAPTATION PROCESSES
6.1 Importance of regular yoga practice
6.2 Sensorimotor system
6.3. Vegetative system
6.4. Mental adaptations
6.5. Learning special abilities
6.6. yoga therapy
6.7. Contraindications
7. CONCLUSION
8. GLOSSARY
Bibliography

Dietrich Ebert. PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF YOGA

Original: Dietrich Ebert. Physiologische Aspekte des Yoga.- 1.Aufl.- Leipzig: Georg Thime, 1986.- 41 Abb., 30 Tab.

Synopsis for the German edition:
Based on the original Indian literature, yoga from the point of view of a physiologist is described as a system of psychophysical self-development. In the introduction, the author presents traditional system yoga in connection with its history and ancient Indian philosophy. Previously researched and accumulated knowledge about the physiological effects of yoga asanas, breathing exercises and meditations are the subject of later chapters. The currently possible theoretical constructions of physiological processes during asanas, pranayamas and concentrative immersions in the last chapter are reduced to a general assessment of the long-term effects of practice and specific medical recommendations. In the glossary for those who are not knowledgeable in Indology, the most important Sanskrit terms are explained.

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION

1. INTRODUCTION

2. YAMA and NIYAMA

3. ASANA (POSE)

4. Pranayama

5. MEDITATION

6. YOGA AND ADAPTATION PROCESSES

7. CONCLUSION

8. GLOSSARY

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION
The widespread and popularity of yoga testifies to the urgent need in society for what is commonly called "anti-stress", "relaxation", "self-control" or "the ability to concentrate". Hence the need for a scientific assessment of this phenomenon also arises. Such attempts have already been made in many countries, more or less confirmed by relevant data (see, for example, Vigh (1970) in Hungary, Mukerji and Spiegelhoff (1971) in Germany, Funderburk (1977) in the USA). This book is addressed to doctors, biologists, psychologists, psychotherapists, it summarizes the data available to the author mainly from a physiological point of view. Elementary information from the practice of yoga is supposed to be known, so this book is by no means an introduction to the practice of yoga, much less a guide to the exercises.

Although the publications available today are often little connected with each other, and many measured values are not accompanied by any physiological commentary, and some studies were even carried out carelessly (which is indicated on occasion in the appropriate places), nevertheless, in this book the author tried to give a closed description and physiological assessment of the issues involved.

Each chapter opens with a brief introduction to the relevant physiological problem for those who are familiar with human physiology in principle but are not experts in the field. For those wishing to delve deeper into the physiological foundations, references to additional literature are provided in the appropriate places. A more detailed exposition of physiological questions would be beyond the scope of this book.

It should be specially emphasized that here we are talking only about selected “aspects”, outside of which there are points of view that are not discussed here, but which are quite deserving of attention within the framework of this topic. This is especially true for other areas of medicine. It would be highly desirable over time to gain a deeper understanding of yoga, for example, in terms of clinical medicine or psychotherapy. The choice of aspects proposed here should therefore serve as a stimulus for further accumulation of data and, accordingly, for new research, in order to thereby contribute to the scientific development of this great heritage of world culture.

For numerous fruitful discussions, criticisms and corrections, I sincerely thank my friends and colleagues Dr. P. Lessig, Dr. W. Fritzsche and Dr. Z. Waurik. I also sincerely thank the ethnologist Mr. G. Kuharski for the numerous references on Indological issues, which occupy a significant place in the text, often without any references. My special gratitude for mutual understanding and support in the work goes to my wife, Dagmar Ebert.
Dietrich Ebert

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Definition of Yoga

The history of yoga in Indian culture goes back thousands of years. Already in pre-Aryan India (approximately 2500 - 1800 BC), the first images of yogis are found. After the Aryan invasion of North India around 1000 B.C. In the valley of the Ganges, the Indo-Aryan culture was formed. Even before the period of its first heyday, around 500-100 BC, the Vedas (Hymns of "knowledge") were written down. These are the oldest written monuments of the Indo-European languages that have come down to our time (Rig Veda, about 1000 BC). The Upanishads, philosophical commentaries on the Vedas, date somewhat later. From the wealth of thought imprinted in them, over time, six great brahminical darshans (philosophical systems) were formed: Mimamsa, Vedanta, Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika and Nyaya.

Thus, yoga as one of the philosophical schools has come down to us from the last third of the 1st millennium BC, being closely connected with the philosophy of Samkhya, one of the oldest philosophical systems in India. It must be said that the concept of philosophy in ancient India, in addition to the theoretical understanding of the world, also included a peculiar way of life (Mylius 1983). Moreover, if the Sankhya philosophy had as its subject just a rational-theoretical interpretation of world problems, then yoga was more likely a practical system of self-knowledge. Ultimately, however, yoga was to lead to the same results as the rationalistic Samkhya philosophy.

Both systems are based on the same cosmology and proceed from the typically brahminical moral-causal world order, according to which every deed, every action (karma), in addition to its natural meaning, has one more meaning, which, regardless of space and time, but only based on the relationship of circumstances, can naturally evoke and influence new circumstances. These influences can be realized only in the next life, after a new birth. Thus, this cosmology includes the doctrine of the “transmigration of souls”, the “wheel of rebirths”. Each act of a person has as its consequence a certain confluence of circumstances arising from the principle of moral responsibility, and in such a way as to obtain the least sad rebirth, as well as to reduce or completely eliminate suffering already in real life, you need a correct understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and the right way of life - which gives an appeal to yoga.

The world order in the dualistic and atheistic Samkhya philosophy is explained by reducing everything that exists in the world to two principles:

Pramatter (Prakriti), unmanifested, formless, disordered, active, is in constant motion, devoid of spirituality and self-awareness.
The spiritual entity, the "soul" (Purusha), is inactive, spiritualized and self-aware.

This spiritual essence is separated from the material world of events by a deep and insurmountable abyss, which also applies to man, in which the core of his own being opposes the objective processes taking place in him as an alienated and indifferent essence. The reason for this is that thinking (chitta) in a person (from a linguistic point of view it is not clear how adequate the translation of “chitta” by the word “thinking”) is a product of prakriti and, accordingly, is associated with objects of perception, that is, it perceives the form of these objects, changing thereby its own Gestalt (eigene Gestalt). Thus arises a false identification of the soul with objects. To break this vicious circle, a means must be found to consciously stop the false identification of the soul with objects (Chattopadhyaya 1978). And that remedy is yoga.

Through yoga, our ignorance (avidya) regarding the essence of purusha and prakriti is eliminated, and thus deliverance from suffering is achieved. In this case, getting rid of suffering means a certain state (enlightenment) obtained through cognition, which annuls the action of Karma leading to suffering and frees the soul from the circle of rebirths. The difference from European ideas about the ways of deliverance is probably that this way is realized primarily through self-knowledge, and at the same time, any ritual actions with a personified deity ("atheistic religion"?).

In the strictly atheistic system of Sankhya, liberation is brought about by rational knowledge and a virtuous way of life, while in yoga liberation is realized through meditation and self-knowledge, and for yoga, in contrast to Sankhya, some theistic component is characteristic, which, apparently, psychologically facilitates the realization of liberation ( see chapter 2). However, this theistic component seems artificial to Indologists (Frauwallner 1953, Glasenapp 1949). Theism does not correspond to the Samkhya worldview and, in relation to yoga, can be considered as an alien element. From the point of view of the philosophical content in yoga there is nothing fundamentally new in comparison with the philosophy of Samkhya. Yoga only brings an in-depth understanding of the psychology and mechanism of the liberation process. So it is hardly legitimate to consider yoga as an independent philosophical system, but it would be more accurate to consider it a practice of Samkhya theory (Frauwallner 1953, Chattopadhyaya 1978). The psychological mechanism of liberating enlightenment is considered on the basis of "mystical physiology" (see 1.3).

This yoga, oriented towards the path of practical self-knowledge, found its classical formulations in the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali (circa 200 BC). The sutras are sayings that are in the nature of axiomatic statements, which to a certain extent form the quintessence of the teaching. Each of the six brahminical darshans has its own fundamental, axiom-formulated sutras. As for the Yoga Sutra, it consists of four books:

Concentration
Practice Concentration
Psychic powers
Liberation

The first book explains the so-called yoga of submission (see Ch. 5), in the second and third books - the classic eightfold path. Finally, the fourth book deals with the philosophical and esoteric aspects of yoga. Without a commentary to the uninitiated, the meaning of these sayings is unclear, since in ancient India all types of philosophy were considered "secret teachings", for a more complete understanding of which a lot of additional information transmitted exclusively orally is required (Mylius 1983). Something is also formulated that can only be understood through one's own experience. Finally, for a correct understanding, a preliminary acquaintance with Samkhya cosmology is necessary. The first and most important commentary on the Yoga Sutra is the Yoga Bhashya written by Vyasa.

Like all brahminical systems, the school of yoga in later times was also provided with very detailed comments and additions. Further, already in the early Middle Ages, some significant changes were found in relation to the methodology, and a great many subspecies and variants of yoga arose. Numerous schools of yoga differ in the peculiarities of the technique of performing exercises, in approaches to the problem of spiritual and physical self-improvement and, accordingly, in the objects of concentration.

Table 1. Some of the famous forms of yoga

Yoga Forms	The original object of spiritual self-cultivation, respectively, the subject of concentration exercises (Evans-Wentz 1937)
Hatha yoga	Body functions, breathing
Mantra yoga	The sound of syllables or words
Yantra yoga	Geometric figures
Karma yoga	Deeds and selfless activities
kriya yoga	Physical and spiritual cleansing
Tantra yoga	Psychic experiments
jnana yoga	Knowledge, cognition
Laya yoga	Strength of will
bhakti yoga	Divine love, self-giving
Kundalini yoga	Esoteric representations

In Europe, hatha yoga, which literally means "yoga of the Sun and Moon" (more precisely, "Combination of solar and lunar breaths" - Evans-Wentz 1937), has gained popularity and is often translated as "yoga of possession of the body", although, of course, this also includes spiritual practices. The most important classical texts on hatha yoga are Hathayogapradipika, Shivasamhita and Gherandasamhita, which appeared in the 11th-17th centuries AD. (Kucharski 1977). Hatha yoga was founded by Gorakshanath and Matsyendranath.

Yoga has been transferred to other countries, especially in East Asia, where, in particular, their own schools of yoga have been formed. (Evans-Wentz 1937), moreover, new forms of culture emerged, such as Zen in Japan (see 5.1). For centuries in Asia, and especially in India, yoga has remained a living practice and can still be found today in its traditional forms (Brunton 1937, Vivekananda 1937, Ananda 1980).

In the current century, this modern and relevant for us yoga has become widespread in Europe and America, which has led to the emergence of a number of its Europeanized forms under mottos such as: "Yoga and Christianity", "Yoga and Sports", "Yoga and Medicine". The abundance of forms, the intervention of European cults and philosophical ideas gave rise to the diversity of exotic sects, in which it is already difficult to recognize "yoga in itself."

1.2. The construction of classical yoga

When analyzing all the variety of yoga subspecies that we have to face everywhere in the world today, it turns out, as well as when considering other traditional Indian schools, that the well-known eight-step path will always be the core and methodological basis of yoga. The first five steps (anga) are called kriya yoga ( practical yoga), and steps six through eight are raja yoga (royal yoga). The specific expansion of any one of the first five steps, or, equally, only parts of them gave rise to many subspecies of yoga.

Intensive cultivation, especially of the third and fourth steps, led to hatha yoga, which, due to the large number and difficulty of various postures, is also called “yoga of the body” or “strong yoga”. For all types of yoga, the following main components are common:
Available code of conduct(set out in the first and second stages), which formally defines the relationship of a person to society and to himself.
Yogic praxis is always associated with conscious performance physical and mental exercises that are done regularly.
The execution of all elements of the exercise must be accompanied by a conscious mental concentration.
Setting the mind to some passivity(e.g., in self-observation of breathing according to the formula "I breathe", etc.) is a psychological technique that is different from "active concentration" (e.g., when calculating in the mind), and creates a psychological ground for mental concentration.

The classical eightfold path is described in principle in the second and third books of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. Since we are giving the most concise summary, only the sutras on this subject will be quoted here:

Eight step yoga

II/29 Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi - the eight limbs of yoga.

1st step

II/30 Non-killing, truthfulness, non-stealing, abstinence and non-greed are called Yama.(The literal translation of "Yama" means: discipline, commandment). II/31 These commandments, not limited by time, place, circumstances and caste laws, are a great vow.

2nd step

II/32 Internal and external purification, contentment, mortification of the flesh, study and service to God - this is Niyama.(Niyama literally means: self-discipline; instead of mortification, the concept of “austerity” is often used).

3rd step

II/46 A still and comfortable posture is an asana.(Originally, only sitting postures could be called asanas, since in the time of Patanjali many other postures were still unknown).

4th step

II/49 Then follows the mastery of the movements of inhalation and exhalation (Pranayama). II/53 The mind becomes capable of Dharana. (Pranayama literally means: “bridling prana” or “energy control”. Prana means vital energy, - see Chapter 4. - which comes through breathing and is regulated by it. Based on this, pranayama is freely translated by the term “regulation of breathing”) .

5th step

II/54 Detachment of the senses (Pratyahara) is achieved by cutting them off from their own objects and at the same time accepting the nature of the mind (chitta). II/55 The result is a complete mastery of the senses.(Psychologically accurate translation of the term "pratyahara": "Lack of connection of the senses with the objects of their sphere of perception").

6th step

III/1 Dharana is the retention of thought on a particular subject.(Dharana is often simply referred to as "concentration" or "fixation of thought").

7th step

III/2 If this (Dharana) forms an uninterrupted stream of knowledge, then it is Dhyana.(Dhyana means precisely: reflection, representation, analysis, and is often translated by the term "meditation." For the meaning of this translation, see Chapter 5.)

8th step

III/3 If this (Dhyana), leaving any forms, reflects only the meaning, then this is Samadhi.(The correct translation of Samadhi is so controversial that even conflicting definitions are used for this, see Chapter 5).

6,7,8th steps

III/4 These three, when applied to one single object, are samiyama. III/5 When this is achieved, the light of knowledge is kindled. III/12 The focus of the chitta on any object is achieved when the past and present impressions are the same.

The remaining sutras not quoted here explain and supplement what has already been said and are of a more philosophical and didactic nature.

Even today, the classical eight limb yoga is practiced in India in this complete form, but some variations are also taught. Moreover, both the number and prevalence of the aforementioned varieties of yoga have increased significantly. Further, it became customary to select individual elements or groups of exercises from the system and apply them as therapeutic agents in medical practice. In many state-funded yoga clinics and institutes, there are methods of yoga therapy for various groups of diseases, which are partly based on clinical experience (see Chapter 6). In addition, for preventive and hygienic purposes, yoga is included in the curriculum of schools and sports institutions.

Modern European literature on yoga, which consists mainly of practical recommendations and attempts at interpretation, also contains more or less developed elements of the classical yoga system. Unfortunately, under the influence of sectarian currents and the interests of commerce, the primordial content of yoga, still preserved, albeit in an incomplete form, is often forced out into the dubious area of superficial speculation. In medical practice, yoga as a system is not used, although there are many applications, primarily in the field of psychotherapy and physiotherapy.

Fig.1. Ancient Indian scheme of the subtle body with seven chakras and three main nadis: Ida (blue), Pingala (red) and Sushumna (straight). The symbolic content of the chakras is conveyed by the number of lotus petals.

1.3. The traditional view of the human body

In order to understand the traditional explanation of certain yogic actions, it is necessary to have an idea of the ancient Indian "mystical physiology", according to which the human body is organized according to the following structural and functional principles (see Fig. 1):

The human body is permeated by a system of nadis, the number of which is about 70,000. Nadis are channels through which vital energy (prana) flows, supplying all tissues. There are three main channels in value, which are located along the middle line of the body from top to bottom: Ida, Pingala and Sushumna. Ida is on the left, Pingala on the right, Sushumna in the center. Ida and Pingala are often depicted as channels twisted with a right screw relative to each other (Fig. 1). Through these two channels, prana flows down (Ida) and up (Pingala) in the form of "vital current". The middle channel does not function normally. But the serpent power of Kundalini, which rests on the lower pole of the body, can rise up along it. Kundalini is a latent, normally dormant energy that appears as a coiled snake.

Yoga leads, among other things, to the awakening of this serpentine power, which can then ascend up the middle Sushumna channel through the seven steps or chakras (see below). These seven chakras (lit.: "Wheels" or "Whirlwinds") are according to these ideas energy centers related to spiritual processes, so that they could be called centers of mental activity (Kucharski 1982). They are activated by directing attention to them. The concentration meditations in tantra and kundalini yoga are designed for this activation. The rise of the kundalini should be accompanied by intense sensations in the region of the chakra that is appropriately involved. Thus spiritual perfection is gradually attained. And when the kundalini is in the last chakra, perfect enlightenment is achieved.

According to this ancient Indian teaching, each person has such chakras and can activate them. In the active state, they begin to rotate (hence the "Wheel"). The teaching about chakras is also interconnected with cosmology, each chakra corresponds to certain colors, shapes and sounds, the meaning of which, in turn, is associated with the Sanskrit alphabet, etc. (For a full and precise description see: Avalon 1958).

This ancient Indian diagram of the human body has no anatomical correspondence; both nadis and chakras are not found anywhere in the body as morphological structures. Reducing them, which can be found in many articles on yoga, to nerve plexuses, glands, "vegetative centers", etc. devoid of any basis. If, however, this scheme of the “subtle body” is taken seriously as the result of empirical self-knowledge, then its interpretation is possible only from a physiological point of view (see Chapter 4).

1.4. Yoga and physiology

If we ignore all those cultural-historical forms and interpretations in which yoga has been modified or included, then from the natural scientific positions, as a result, there remains some empirical knowledge that exists independently of any interpretation, in which yoga appears as a method of self-discipline. In the physiological sense, we are talking about a certain system of teaching methods of conscious control and regulation of motor, sensory, vegetative and mental activity. At the same time, there is a conscious impact on somatic and mental functions, coinciding with the conscious “self-recognition”, “experiencing” of the function.

Dietrich Ebert. PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF YOGA.. 1

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION ... 1

1. INTRODUCTION. 2

1.2. The construction of classical yoga. 5

1.3. The traditional view of the human body. 8

1.4. Yoga and physiology. 9

2. YAMA and NIYAMA.. 10

3. ASANA (POSE). 16

3.2. Mechanically conditioned effects of asanas on internal organs.. 20

3.3. Effects on blood circulation. 24

3.4. Functional-energetic aspects of asanas. 31

3.5. Biomechanical aspects of asanas. 38

3.6. Somatosensory effects of asanas. 40

3.7. Sensorimotor aspects of asanas. 42

4. Pranayama.. 48

4.1 Prana theories.. 48

4.2 Pranayama techniques.. 50

4.3. Breathing forms and pranayama parameters.. 52

4.4. Energy exchange in pranayama. 59

4.6. The role of respiration in the human body. 61

5. MEDITATION. 71

5.2. Meditation Techniques.. 72

5.3. Physiological Effects of Meditation.. 75

5.4 Psychophysiological significance of meditation.. 91

7. CONCLUSION 103

8. GLOSSARY.. 104

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 108

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION

Dietrich Ebert HD

The widespread and popularity of yoga testifies to the urgent need in society for what is commonly called "anti-stress", "relaxation", "self-control" or "the ability to concentrate". Hence the need for a scientific assessment of this phenomenon also arises. Such attempts have already been made in many countries, more or less confirmed by relevant data (see, for example, Vigh (1970) in Hungary, Mukerji and Spiegelhoff (1971) in Germany, Funderburk (1977) in the USA). This book is addressed to doctors, biologists, psychologists, psychotherapists, it summarizes the data available to the author mainly from a physiological point of view. Elementary information from the practice of yoga is supposed to be known, so this book is by no means an introduction to the practice of yoga, much less a guide to the exercises.
Although the publications available today are often little connected with each other, and many measured values are not accompanied by any physiological commentary, and some studies were even carried out carelessly (which is indicated on occasion in the appropriate places), nevertheless, in this book the author tried to give a closed description and physiological assessment of the issues involved.
Each chapter opens with a brief introduction to the relevant physiological problem for those who are familiar with human physiology in principle but are not experts in the field. For those wishing to delve deeper into the physiological foundations, references to additional literature are provided in the appropriate places. A more detailed exposition of physiological questions would be beyond the scope of this book.
It should be specially emphasized that here we are talking only about selected “aspects”, outside of which there are points of view that are not discussed here, but which are quite deserving of attention within the framework of this topic. This is especially true for other areas of medicine. It would be highly desirable over time to gain a deeper understanding of yoga, for example, in terms of clinical medicine or psychotherapy. The choice of aspects proposed here should therefore serve as a stimulus for further accumulation of data and, accordingly, for new research, in order to thereby contribute to the scientific development of this great heritage of world culture.
For numerous fruitful discussions, criticisms and corrections, I sincerely thank my friends and colleagues Dr. P. Lessig, Dr. W. Fritzsche and Dr. Z. Waurik. I also sincerely thank the ethnologist Mr. G. Kuharski for the numerous references on Indological issues, which occupy a significant place in the text, often without any references. My special gratitude for mutual understanding and support in the work goes to my wife, Dagmar Ebert.

Dietrich Ebert

INTRODUCTION

D. Ebert. Physiologische Aspekte des Yoga / Translated from German by Minvaleev R.S.

Definition of Yoga

Both systems are based on the same cosmology and proceed from the typically brahminical moral-causal world order, according to which every deed, every action (karma), in addition to its natural meaning, has one more meaning, which, regardless of space and time, but only based on the relationship of circumstances, can naturally evoke and influence new circumstances. These influences can be realized only in the next life, after a new birth. Thus, this cosmology includes the doctrine of the “transmigration of souls”, the “wheel of rebirths”. Every act of a person has as its consequence a certain confluence of circumstances arising from the principle of moral responsibility, and thus, in order to obtain the least sad rebirth, as well as to reduce or completely eliminate suffering already in this life, a correct understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and a correct image are necessary. life - which gives an appeal to yoga.

The world order in the dualistic and atheistic Samkhya philosophy is explained by reducing everything that exists in the world to two principles:

Pramatter (Prakriti), unmanifested, formless, disordered, active, is in constant motion, devoid of spirituality and self-awareness.
The spiritual entity, the "soul" (Purusha), is inactive, spiritualized and self-aware.

This spiritual essence is separated from the material world of events by a deep and insurmountable abyss, which also applies to a person in whom the core of his own being opposes the objective processes taking place in him as an alienated and indifferent essence. The reason for this is that thinking (chitta) in a person (from a linguistic point of view it is not clear how adequate the translation of “chitta” by the word “thinking”) is a product of prakriti and, accordingly, is associated with objects of perception, that is, it perceives the form of these objects, changing thereby its own Gestalt (eigene Gestalt). Thus arises a false identification of the soul with objects. To break this vicious circle, a means must be found to consciously stop the false identification of the soul with objects (Chattopadhyaya 1978). And that remedy is yoga.

Concentration
Practice Concentration
Psychic powers
Liberation

Like all brahminical systems, the school of yoga in later times was also provided with very detailed comments and additions. Further, already in the early Middle Ages, some significant changes were found in relation to the methodology, and a great many subspecies and variants of yoga arose. Numerous schools of yoga differ in the peculiarities of the technique of performing exercises, in approaches to the problem of spiritual and physical self-improvement, and, accordingly, in the objects of concentration.

Table 1. Some of the famous forms of yoga

Yoga Forms	The original object of spiritual self-cultivation, respectively, the subject of concentration exercises (Evans-Wentz 1937)
Hatha yoga	Body functions, breathing
Mantra yoga	The sound of syllables or words
Yantra yoga	Geometric figures
Karma yoga	Deeds and selfless activities
kriya yoga	Physical and spiritual cleansing
Tantra yoga	Psychic experiments
jnana yoga	Knowledge, cognition
Laya yoga	Strength of will
bhakti yoga	Divine love, self-giving
Kundalini yoga	Esoteric representations

1.2. The construction of classical yoga

When analyzing all the variety of yoga subspecies that we have to face everywhere in the world today, it turns out, as well as when considering other traditional Indian schools, that the well-known eight-step path will always be the core and methodological basis of yoga. The first five steps (anga) are called kriya yoga (practical yoga), and steps six through eight are called raja yoga (regal yoga). The specific expansion of any one of the first five steps, or, equally, only parts of them gave rise to many subspecies of yoga.

Intensive improvement, especially of the third and fourth steps, led to hatha yoga, which, due to the large number and difficulty of various postures, is also called "yoga of the body" or "strong yoga." For all types of yoga, the following main components are common:
Available code of conduct(set out in the first and second stages), which formally defines the relationship of a person to society and to himself.
Yogic praxis is always associated with conscious performance physical and mental exercises that are done regularly.
The execution of all elements of the exercise must be accompanied by a conscious mental concentration.
Setting the mind to some passivity(e.g., in self-observation of breathing according to the formula "I breathe", etc.) is a psychological technique that is different from "active concentration" (e.g., when calculating in the mind), and creates a psychological ground for mental concentration.

Eight step yoga

II/29 Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi - the eight limbs of yoga.

I am a step

II/46 A still and comfortable posture is an asana.(Originally, only sitting postures could be called asanas, since in the time of Patanjali many other postures were still unknown).

I am a step

III/1 Dharana is the retention of thought on a particular subject.(Dharana is often simply referred to as "concentration" or "fixation of thought").

I am a step

I steps

The remaining sutras not quoted here explain and supplement what has already been said and are of a more philosophical and didactic nature.

Yoga and physiology

The goal of yogic practice can be seen as "...intensive and precise study inner peace human...” (Scheidt 1976) and in the implementation of practices and lifestyles that lead the organism to “...situational and constitutional optimum...” (Schultz 1954). From mental and bodily self-discipline one can expect both physiologically measurable effects, and equally, health-improving effects in terms of prevention and therapy. In this sense, it is legitimate to define yoga as an individually practiced and subjectively experienced “physiology”. To what extent this "experienced physiology" is comparable with our European objective physiology and will be the subject of subsequent discussions.

YAMA and NIYAMA

D. Ebert. Physiologische Aspekte des Yoga / Translated from German by Minvaleev R.S.

The first two steps of classical yoga are represented by the rules of conduct, which are found unchanged in all schools of yoga. Moreover, they have also become accepted moral precepts for all those who, although not practicing yoga, live in the Indian cultural traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism or Jainism, and, apparently, only the precepts for purification are not followed as strictly as in yoga. . At first glance, it seems that Yama and Niyama are not directly related to physiology. However, in the sense of a holistic consideration of the eco-socio-psycho-somatic organization of life, some of these prescriptions have points of contact with physiology. For purely medical fields of activity in which psychotherapeutic, psychohygienic, socio-medical or physio-dietological aspects are important, tempting prospects may be hidden here. Therefore, we will consider these prescriptions in somewhat more detail, and we will dwell on the relationship with the physiology of the diet and cleansing procedures.

Yama and Niyama Precepts

Yama (discipline, right way of life) regulates ethical relations with the outside world. The foundations of the yama are partially given already in the Yoga Sutra, which we present in fragments (source see 1.2.):

II / 33 In order to drive out thoughts that hinder yoga, you need to call the opposite of them.

II/34 The obstacles to yoga are murder, untruthfulness, etc., whether they are already perfect, whether they have a cause or occasion, are due to greed, anger, or ignorance, and whether they are light, average, or excessive, have as their effect an infinite ignorance and need. This is the method of how to think the opposite.

The awakening of thoughts is attributed here with a decisive significance as a mechanism for controlling behavior. This principle of “priority of spirituality” for human behavior, which must be developed in order to control and use biological instincts, correlates with the Marxist theory of the social determination of human behavior, since the content of thinking in this case also depends, among other things, on social determinants.

II/35 If he (the yogi) stands firm in ahimsa, then in his presence all enmity ceases.

This principle of non-killing (ahimsa) is broadly understood as the principle of non-violence. It includes the fundamental non-infliction of violence against all the creatures of the creator, as well as compassion for all those who suffer. In its extreme form, this precept is practiced by Jains, who sweep the road in front of them and wear a handkerchief over their faces so as not to inadvertently kill any insect.

II / 36 If the yogi is completely established in truthfulness, then he gets the opportunity for himself and for others to reap the fruits of labor without effort.

Truthfulness (sathyam) is understood here in the same comprehensive way as described above (II/34). This has the following relation to physiology. When untruth is spoken, then in order to maintain social plausibility, another parallel model containing a lie must be added to the intra-subject model of behavior. With this parallel model, which has no correspondence in reality, one has to compare and coordinate each real situation in order to be able to exist in society as an integral person. This requires an overstrain of mental activity and an overexpenditure of mental energy, which prevents spontaneous behavior and direct regulation of relationships with the outside world.

II/37 If the yogin is strengthened in non-theft, then all treasures flow to him.

Non-theft (asteyam) also includes the renunciation of any claim to another's property. This should give rise to an unshakable self-awareness.

II/38 Strength is gained by being established in abstinence.

This laconic statement is reminiscent of the psychoanalytic theory of sublimation, according to which the sexual desire can act as a spiritual force if it is directed to non-sexual ends. In other words, the power to satisfy sexual needs is used for non-sexual activities, "sublimated" in non-sexual behavior. The commonality with Sutra II/38 is that the sexual desire (Libido) is understood here as a force or as psychic energy.

II/39 If he is strengthened in non-greed, then he will receive the memory of a past existence.

Aparigraha is often translated as the absence of greed.

Niyama (self-discipline, limitation) regulates the attitude towards oneself:

II/41 Also arise the purity of sattva (joy, knowledge),
cheerful disposition, concentration, subordination of the senses and the ability of self-realization.

The most important and voluminous component of Niyama are the purification practices (Kriya, see Chapter 2.2.), which, however, are not explained in the Yoga Sutra, but appear in later texts, sometimes they can also be found in connection with pranayama or in wisdom.

II/42 From contentment grows the highest happiness.

Satisfaction (santosha) with everything that happens or exactly how an event occurs can be trained by taking into account only the positive aspects that are contained in everything, and ignoring the negative aspects. At the same time, it is initially accepted that every event carries both aspects, and then the negative aspects are known in interaction with one's own personality.

II/43 As a result of austerity, hidden powers are imparted to the sense organs and the body through the elimination of impurity.

Ascesis, often defined as rigor (tapas) - one of the prescriptions of self-discipline - covers all subsequent steps of yoga or prepares for them. It is about training willpower through the practice of overcoming your own needs. Asceticism includes, for example, periods of fasting during which there is resistance to nutritional needs, sexual abstinence, as well as periods of social isolation (loneliness) in order to resist the needs of communication and social contacts. The transfer of physical pain is also common.
Niyama includes the study of texts, devotion to a god, or reverence for a guru. Of course, the study of texts restores the relationship with the cultural tradition.
Loving self-surrender became the main goal in bhakti yoga (cf. Bhagavad Gita, about 400 BC). At the same time, it is not the object of veneration that is essential, but the actual fact of veneration, i.e. practice of self-surrender towards anyone.

Yoga Diet

All yoga schools give special recommendations on the quantity and quality of nutrition, which Patanjali does not mention, and they also cannot be attributed to one or another step of the eightfold path. These recommendations of Kuvalayananda and Vinekar (1963) summarize as follows:

1. Avoiding overeating, setting an individually required amount of calories.

2. Compliance with a dairy-vegetarian diet (without eating meat, but without a ban on all "animals")

3. Eating food poor in proteins (without eggs) and salt.

It is assumed that yogic practices stimulate the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, and as a result, first of all, in beginners, compensatory hyperactivation of the sympathetic-adrenal system occurs, to neutralize the undesirable consequences of which there is a need for a low-protein diet with salt restriction.

4. Avoidance of all stimulants, such as, for example, strong spices and drugs.

A number of dietary recommendations are based mainly on the traditions of Ayurveda. Ayurveda (approximately 200 AD) is a system of ancient Indian medicine, which also contains information on biologically active substances (pharmacy) and diet. Here you can see a lot of similarities with ancient Chinese ideas about health and diet, when the goal is achieved by a well-balanced diet. Following these dietary recommendations in individual cases could be a worthy task for clinical biochemistry.

The dietary recommendation for no meat, according to Kuvalayananda and Vinekar (1963), derives from the well-known notion that meat contains less vital energy because the animal has already used it up. As a result, even less energy remains in the meat of carnivores than in the meat of herbivores. Most of the vital energy, therefore, can be obtained from plants (according to the ancient Hindus, the primitive society was a society of vegetarians). It is assumed that this recommendation is due to tradition. For example, the Eskimos, who do not have the opportunity to consume plants, have adapted to a meat diet. In the new (especially European) schools of yoga, vegetarian cuisine is justified by the fact that with its help only good manners and virtue develop. Eating meat gives rise to aggressiveness and, as a result, destructive stereotypes of behavior. From the point of view of the physiology of nutrition, nothing definite can be said about this, since the relationship between the manner of behavior or such elements of the psyche as moods, affects, mental activity, etc. has not yet been studied. with the composition of food products. The next argument in favor of refusing to eat meat is that it is immoral to eat meat, since in this case the ethical commandment of ahimsa (non-killing) is violated in order to obtain food. To this, from a general biological point of view, one could object that plants are also living beings. Further, with the mass keeping of livestock by people, an ethically complex problem arises: all those animals that are intended for processing for meat must first be raised by humans, that is, they would not exist at all if they were not used for food. The explanation that meat food in the tropics spoils very quickly also sounds convincing; in this case, this hygienic reason will be the basis for the prohibition on eating meat.

We do not know what psychological consequences a one-sided vegetarian diet may have, because nothing is known about the relationship between the structure of the intermediate metabolism and mental functions. Here are some of the effects of a vegetarian diet on intermediate metabolism.

Purely plant foods are poor in proteins and fats, so that without olives and nuts, the need for calories can only be satisfied big amount bulk food (Rapoport 1969). In addition, vegetarians do not get enough of some essential amino acids. They also show a decrease in serum globulin levels (Kanig 1973). However, the counterexample in this respect is the strict vegetarians who have lived to a ripe old age. Vegetarian food enriched with dairy products can already be considered complete.

Plant-based diets are low in salt, which leads to osmotic dehydration. With this, as well as with a high content of vitamins, the anti-inflammatory effect of plant products is associated (Seidel, Bosseckert 1971). The pH value of the liquid medium of the body is shifted towards alkaline values. Finally, it is necessary to take into account the increased gas formation in the intestine due to the breakdown of cellulose, which, in turn, leads to the absorption of methane and an increase in its content in the blood.

In yoga, it is recommended to limit food. Eating should be finished when hunger is satisfied - an attitude aimed at avoiding satiety and overeating. Temporary fasting is recommended, the effect of which is seen in an increase in psychic energy. During fasting, one's own energy needs are covered by the breakdown of the body's reserves, while the level of protein in the blood remains unchanged, the content of all lipids falls, and the breakdown of muscle tissue is prevented by regular training (for example, the practice of asanas) (for more details, see: Krauss 1979, Seidel, Bosseckert 1971). After overcoming the so-called hunger crisis, such psychophysically beneficial results as, for example, improved vision and a lowering of the hearing threshold are described (Krauss 1977). A similar increase in psychophysical indicators is emphasized by all yogas, and their descriptions range from "improvement of well-being" through "increased tone" to "ability for expanded perception." The systematic study and substantiation of these relationships is of considerable interest.

In the clinical picture of the psychiatric disease Anorexia nervosa (neurotic lack of appetite), accompanied by chronic malnutrition, an increase in mental performance is also reported. For example, adolescents with this condition are often among the top achievers in their age groups.

It should be noted here that any therapeutic fasting, in addition to observing the relevant rules, requires medical supervision. This includes, for example, control over the excretion of water and electrolytes, blood circulation, the functions of certain hormones, etc.

ASANA (POSE)

D. Ebert. Physiologische Aspekte des Yoga / Translated from German by Minvaleev R.S.

Sitting postures

Padmasana * Lotus position
Vajrasana * "Strong Pose", Pose on the heels
Sukhasana* "easy pose", Tailor's Pose

Inverted poses

Viparitakarani *"inverted pose", Half-stand on the shoulder blades
Sarvangasana * shoulder stand, candle pose
Sirshasana *headstand

Torso rotation

Matsyendrasana * "Matsyendranath Pose", Twisted Pose
Ardhamatsyendrasana * semi-twisted pose
Vakrasana * back rotation

Torso forward bends

Paschimottanasana * Cross Reclining Pose, Back Pose
Halasana * plow pose (also an inverted pose)
Yoga mudra * yoga symbol
Yoganidrasana * sleeping pose

Torso back

Matsyasana *fish pose
Bhujangasana *cobra pose
Shalabhasana * grasshopper pose
Dhanurasana *bow pose
Chakrasana * wheel pose

Balance exercises

Parvatasana *mountain pose
Kukutasana * cock pose
Wokasana *tree pose
Bakasana *crow pose
Vrischikasana * scorpion pose
Mayurasana * peacock pose

Table 3 List of muscles that contract during the most important bandhas (according to Gopal, Lakshman 1972)

The physiology of yoga studies the influence of hatha yoga techniques on the physiological components of a person.

Every day there is an increasing interest in the study of hatha yoga in the world. The Hatha Yoga system is based on a variety of techniques for working with the body - asana (body position, shape, position) and pranayama (breathing practices and breath holding), the main purpose of which is a specific effect on the human body. One of the goals of the hatha yoga system is perfect health and an increase in the life expectancy of a person, through a complex effect on the organs and systems of the body.

The physiology of yoga explore questions of a similar type:

The effect of yoga techniques on the ANS
The influence of yoga techniques on CCC
Physiology of Meditation Practices
Traditional methods of psychophysical self-improvement and others

More detailed information and some studies on the physiology of yoga you can see in the corresponding section.

It is most correct to consider the influence of hatha yoga methods on 3 planes. As an example, one of the greatest teachers of our time, Swami Satyanda Saraswati, said: “Yoga asana acts on 3 human planes: physical, psychological and spiritual”

Effect on physiology:

Muscles and joints, nervous and endocrine, respiratory and excretory systems, and the circulatory system are coordinated in such a way as to support and facilitate the functioning of each other. Asanas increase the adaptive functions of the body, make the body strong and flexible. They support the body in optimal condition, contribute to the recovery of diseased organs and rejuvenation of the body as a whole.

For the psyche:

Asanas make the mind strong, able to overcome pain and misfortune. They develop determination, focus and confidence. With regular practice of asanas, balance becomes a normal state of mind. You can meet all the problems of the world, all the anxieties and sorrows with absolute calmness. The mind calms down, the colors of life become brighter, and difficulties turn into a means to achieve perfect mental health. The practice of asanas awakens dormant energies that cause others to feel trust and longing for the person who radiates them. There is an expansion of consciousness, a person is able to see himself and the world around him.

Yoga - asana and spirituality:

Asanas are the third stage of the eight-step path of Raja Yoga, and in this aspect, asanas prepare the body and mind for higher yoga practices, namely: pratyahara - distraction of the senses from objects, dharana - concentration, dhyana - meditation and samadhi - achieving cosmic consciousness. Classic texts on hatha yoga: "Hatha Yoga Pradipika" and "Gheranda Samhita". And although asanas alone cannot give spiritual enlightenment, they are nevertheless an important part of spiritual path. Some people believe that asanas are just physical exercises that have nothing to do with spiritual development. This is a completely wrong point of view. For those who seek to awaken and develop their psychic abilities, asanas are an almost inevitable necessity!

That is, in the physiological aspect, we are talking about the consideration of yoga methods on the human body and the development of conscious control and regulation of motor, sensory, vegetative and other physiological activities, that is, a conscious impact on somatic and mental functions.

The human body has about 200 segments of striated muscles, each of which is surrounded by a fascia that passes into a tendon and attaches to the bone. In addition, in the places where the bones are articulated - the joints, there are ligaments that form articular bags.

Each such segment has receptors through which the central nervous system receives relevant information about the strength and nature of irritation (excitation). The immediate localization of this irritation is the cerebral cortex.

Thus, by stimulating certain muscle groups, using static and dynamic modes of operation, as well as stretching and relaxing muscles, with the help of motor actions and postures, an indirect effect on the central nervous system becomes possible.

Stimulation of certain areas of the cerebral cortex (cortico-visceral interaction) affects the thought process and the feelings and emotions associated with it. Mental activity, in turn, affects both the skeletal and smooth muscle muscles of the internal organs.

In addition, certain body positions affect the endocrine system, which is also manifested in the corresponding reactions of the body. The use of various tools and methods of working with musculoskeletal system, allows you to achieve the necessary functional reactions and states of the human body, to perform or solve the corresponding tasks.

In the language of physiology, there is an impact on the functional state of the central nervous system, that is, on the mental and physiological functions of the body. Using this knowledge and capabilities, a person can correct various dysfunctions of his body.

Such a process of self-knowledge makes it possible to bring a human being to a new stage of evolutionarily significant changes and, as a result, a higher level of personality realization. However, the practical achievement of these changes, such as the correction of the spine or getting rid of chronic stress, requires special knowledge and should be implemented gradually. At first, it is necessary to practice under the supervision of a qualified specialist who will be able to monitor the correct implementation and adapt personal practice complexes to a change in the state of the body.

It is traditionally believed that hatha yoga asanas can be practiced at any age, up to old age. The followers of the system were able purely empirically, by summarizing centuries of experience, to discover the main general biological pattern: a properly selected and dosed functional load, with regular systematic repetition in the form of exercises, forms and improves the body, its tissues, organs and systems.

Hatha yoga classes contribute to the acquisition of the skill of deep relaxation, which also has a beneficial effect on the emotional sphere, eventually forming stress resistance. Psychoemotional stability training gives a person the opportunity to even consciously reduce pain.

Anatomical and physiological basis of the nervous system, based on the acquired knowledge, one can purposefully delve into the study of the influence of yoga practice on the central and autonomic (vegetative) nervous system.

static exercises.

By doing static exercises Yogas (asanas) achieve functional muscle tension both due to the static-force contraction of the acting muscles, and due to the strong stretching of the opposing muscles, tendons and ligaments. This stretch often reaches its maximum limits and creates significant, sometimes maximum, irritation of proprioreceptors in muscles, tendons and articular ligaments. From the sensitive receptors (proprioreceptors) of these organs, a powerful signal of impulses goes to the central nervous system (CNS), to the cerebral cortex. It is believed that each yoga pose affects a certain reflexogenic zone of the musculoskeletal system, which is the source of nerve impulses to the central nervous system, and through it to the autonomous system, to the internal organs.

When performing yoga asanas, impulses going to the central nervous system from stretched muscles and tendons differs from significant impulsation in isotonic exercises, since during the performance of yoga poses this impulsation is not accompanied by a significant increase in energy consumption and the formation a large number heat . The energy exchange during the headstand (VO2 -336ml/min) is approximately 1.5 times higher than in the prone position (VO2 -200ml/min). When performing yoga poses, lactic acid, which is formed during intense muscular work, does not accumulate. During the execution of Shavasana (pose of psychophysical relaxation), a decrease in energy exchange by 10.3% is found compared to the main exchange, which indicates complete muscle relaxation. In Padmasana (lotus position), as well as in Shavasana, a decrease in energy exchange is noted, no action potentials on the quadriceps femoris muscle were found on the electromyogram.

In asanas with stretching (twisting) of the body, a change in pressure leads to stretching of the muscles of the intestinal wall, which stimulates the motility of the digestive tract due to reflex contraction of smooth muscles and through the nerve nodes located in the intestinal wall, causes a number of intestinal reflexes that lead to contraction of the intestinal wall in its most remote areas.

It has been established by electrophysiological methods that when performing yoga postures (asanas), the magnitude of the current generated by the human bioenergetic system changes significantly. It is currently believed that, since each organ has a representation in the CNS, the simultaneous state of all organs, tissues and systems is reflected in the CNS in a certain way.

At the time of performing the asana, the state of the organs is reflected in the CNS in the form of a specific mosaic of electrical potentials, characteristic parameters of the brain's own electromagnetic field, and specific nuances of interaction with the electric and magnetic fields of the Earth.

The constant diverse action of weak magnetic and electric fields on the human body, in particular, on blood circulation, the function of the central nervous system, made it very sensitive to changes in these fields in the process of evolution. This sensitivity also increases because the body itself generates electromagnetic and electrostatic fields, modulated mainly by low frequencies. Asana is a certain configuration of the vascular circuit in the Earth's magnetic field. Therefore, in the practice of yoga, since ancient times, much attention has been paid to the influence of external factors when performing exercises and the relationship of the human body with the environment.

A properly selected set of asanas is a consistent change in the configurations of the vascular circuit, the creation of a dynamic sequence of biochemical, biophysical changes in various parts of the body, organs, tissues of the body, in the electrical processes of the brain. When such a complex is performed, the functions of organs and the body as a whole are normalized, and with the constant practice of yoga, the nonspecific resistance of the body to various stressors increases and becomes stable.

Breath in Eastern culture and physiology, it is considered not only from the point of view of metabolism, but also, first of all, as a means of influencing mental activity (the means of influence include singing long mantras while exhaling). Given the variety of influences and interactions, external respiration plays an important regulatory role in the human body and is functionally a link between the physical and mental.

A significant impact on the psycho-emotional state and mental activity through alternating yoga breathing through the right and left nostrils is currently explained by the relationship of breathing through different nostrils with an increase in the activity of various parts of the autonomic nervous system (right - sympathetic, left - parasympathetic) and a hypothesis based on the theory of specializations hemispheres of the cerebral cortex and the projection of afferent impulses from the receptors of the nasal mucosa by passing cold air on inspiration, as well as a reflex effect on the blood circulation areas in the head by cooling the capillaries in the nasal concha.

The experiment found that the mechanical obstruction of the excursion chest on the one hand, it stimulates an increase in nasal breathing from the opposite side. Thus, it can be assumed that the performance of twisted poses can affect the mental activity and mental state of a person (restriction of chest mobility on one side during the performance of a pose - increased nasal breathing on the opposite side - increased activity of the corresponding hemisphere of the brain).

The basic breathing techniques in yoga are exercises with a calm slow deep breath, then holding the breath while inhaling, a much slower calm exhalation and holding the breath while exhaling. When performing a cycle of rhythmic breathing (from 7 (inhale): 0 (breath-hold): 7 (exhale) to 7:7:14 and then 7:0:28), it was found that voluntary slowing of breathing in yoga practice goes in parallel with a decrease in oxygen consumption and an even more significant reduction in CO2 emissions. When under conditions of a significant decrease in oxygen and blood pressure, full slow yoga breathing (5 per 1 / min) maintains better oxygenation of the blood without increasing the minute volume of respiration (than the usual 15 per 1 / min) and reduces the sympathetic activity of the autonomic nervous system. Carbon dioxide, being a product of cellular metabolism, simultaneously determines the course of the main biochemical and physiological processes, is a factor in the regulation of the activity of the cardiovascular, hormonal, digestive and nervous systems.

It is noted that slow rhythmic and deep yoga breathing lowers the heart rate (HR) and arterial pressure(HELL). On the contrary, fast deep yoga breathing (Bhastrika) increases heart rate and blood pressure, fast shallow yoga breathing "Kapalbhati" changes the autonomic status of the autonomic nervous system, increasing sympathetic activity and reducing parasympathetic activity, while psychophysiological factors are of great importance. With the joint performance of physiologically differently directed basic yoga breathing exercises, an increase in the parasympathetic and a decrease in the sympathetic activity of the autonomic nervous system is recorded.

It is assumed that the cerebral cortex can influence not only the respiratory center, but also act directly on the spinal motor neurons of the respiratory muscles. It can be assumed, that regular execution various voluntary breaths according to the yoga system, reducing the role of chemoreceptor and mechanoreceptor reflexes of involuntary regulation of breathing, enhances the corticalization of the respiratory function, expands the range of its fine regulation by the higher parts of the central nervous system in various functional states of the human body (including extreme and pathological).

Relaxation (relaxation) is an obligatory component of most yoga practices and the methodological basis of all other Eastern health systems. When performing asanas, it is recommended to direct attention to the maximum possible relaxation of the muscles. After performing a group of asanas, as well as at the end of the lesson, the technique of complete psychophysical relaxation "Shavasana" (dead pose or dead man's pose) is practiced.

The psychogenic factor during the performance of relaxation exercises increases muscle relaxation, has a significant effect on the central nervous system by regulating the level, changes the vegetative and hormonal status during the exercise and in the immediate period of aftereffect. During the performance of Shavasana, oxygen consumption, respiratory rate and respiratory volume decrease, in addition, there is a decrease in heart rate and skin conductivity during yoga relaxation techniques, as well as a decrease in oxygen consumption and sympathetic activity of the autonomic nervous system after exercise.

The brain processes neurochemical information and produces electrical signals, an electroencephalograph determines and records the total voltage changes that occur in the brain. These electrical signals follow in certain rhythms, conditionally divided into four frequency ranges characteristic of the bioelectrical activity of the brain.

Beta waves are the fastest. Their frequency varies classic version, from 14 to 42 Hz (and according to some modern sources, - more than 100 Hertz).

In a normal waking state, when we observe the world around us with open eyes, or are focused on solving some current problems, these waves, mainly in the range from 14 to 40 Hertz, dominate in our brain. Beta waves are usually associated with wakefulness, wakefulness, concentration, cognition, and, when they are in excess, with anxiety, fear, and panic. A lack of beta waves is associated with depression, poor selective attention, and memory problems.

A number of researchers have found that some people have very high levels of tension, including high brain electrical activity in the fast beta wave range, and very low alpha and theta relaxation wave power. People of this type also often exhibit characteristic behaviors such as smoking, overeating, gambling, drug or alcohol addiction. These are usually successful people, because they are much more sensitive to external stimuli and react to them much faster than others. But for them, ordinary events can seem extremely stressful, forcing them to look for ways to reduce stress and anxiety levels through the use of alcohol and drugs.

Alpha waves occur when we close our eyes and begin to passively relax without thinking about anything. At the same time, bioelectrical oscillations in the brain slow down, and “bursts” of alpha waves appear, i.e. fluctuations in the range from 8 to 13 Hertz.

If we continue to relax without focusing our thoughts, alpha waves will begin to dominate the entire brain, and we will fall into a state of pleasant peace, also called the “alpha state”.

Research has shown that alpha brain stimulation is ideal for absorbing new information, data, facts, any material that needs to be always ready in your memory.

On the electroencephalogram (EEG) of a healthy, not under the influence of stress person, there are always a lot of alpha waves. Lack of them can be a sign of stress, inability to adequate rest and effective learning, as well as evidence of brain disorders or illness. It is in the alpha state that the human brain produces more beta-endorphins and enkephalins - its own "drugs" responsible for joy, relaxation and pain reduction. Also, alpha waves are a kind of bridge - they provide a connection between consciousness and the subconscious. Numerous studies using the EEG method have established that people who experienced events in childhood associated with severe mental trauma have suppressed alpha brain activity. A similar picture of the electrical activity of the brain can be observed in people suffering from post-traumatic syndrome resulting from military operations or environmental disasters. The addiction of some people to alcohol and drugs is explained by the fact that these people are not able to generate a sufficient number of alpha waves in the normal state, while in the state of narcotic or alcohol intoxication, the power of the electrical activity of the brain, in the alpha range, increases sharply in them.

Theta waves occur when a calm, peaceful wakefulness turns into sleepiness. The oscillations in the brain become slower and more rhythmic, ranging from 4 to 8 Hertz.

This state is also called "twilight", because in it a person is between sleep and wakefulness. It is often accompanied by visions of unexpected, dream-like images, accompanied by vivid memories, especially childhood ones. The theta state allows access to the contents of the unconscious part of the mind, free associations, unexpected insights, creative ideas.

On the other hand, the theta range (4-7 oscillations per second) is ideal for non-critical acceptance of external attitudes, since its rhythms reduce the action of the corresponding protective mental mechanisms and allow transforming information to penetrate deep into the subconscious. That is, in order for messages designed to change your behavior or attitude to others to penetrate the subconscious without being subjected to the critical evaluation inherent in the waking state, it is best to impose them on the rhythms of the theta range.

Delta waves begin to dominate when we fall asleep. They are even slower than theta waves because they have a frequency of less than 4 oscillations per second.

Most of us, when delta waves dominate the brain, are either in a sleepy state or in some other unconscious state. However, there is growing evidence that some people can be in a delta state without losing awareness. As a rule, this is associated with deep trance or "non-physical" states. It is noteworthy that it is in this state that our brain secretes the largest amounts of growth hormone, and the processes of self-healing and self-healing are most intensive in the body.

Recent studies have established that as soon as a person shows a real interest in something, the power of the bioelectrical activity of the brain in the delta range increases significantly (along with beta activity).

Modern methods of computer analysis of the electrical activity of the brain have made it possible to establish that in the state of wakefulness in the brain there are frequencies of absolutely all ranges, and what more efficient work of the brain, the greater the coherence (synchronism) of oscillations is observed in all ranges in the symmetrical zones of both hemispheres of the brain.

Relaxation exercises, having independent significance at the initial physical stage of the yoga system (hatha yoga), are the basis for subsequent meditation, which, according to numerous studies, has significant features in terms of physiological, neurophysiological and biochemical parameters. According to the EEG analysis, in a healthy person in a state of relaxation, the alpha rhythm dominates with elements of the beta rhythm. During meditation, a beta-rhythm increasing in time is noted, which from the central region (Roland's furrow - Sulcus Rolandi) spreads throughout the cortex.

When "Samadhi" ("Enlightenment") is reached, the amplitude of the beta rhythm (30-45 Hz) reaches an unusually high value of 30-50 microvolts. During meditation and its highest form "Samadhi", the second variant of EEG activity is also noted - an increase in the amplitude of the alpha rhythm on the anterior part of the skull, with a slight decrease in its frequency.

Thus, the state of meditation differs from the state of light sleep, in which theta activity is observed, as well as from states of deep sleep, loss of consciousness, and various pathological processes in the cerebral cortex, in which the delta rhythm is noted. During meditations not based on the classical techniques of the yoga system, an intermittent or predominant theta rhythm may be recorded.

Regularly practicing meditation significantly improves respiratory performance (including the time of holding the breath). During meditation, there is also a significant decrease in the frequency rate to 6-7 1 / min for beginners and 1-2 1 / min for experienced yogis.

Decreased breathing during relaxation exercises and meditation contributes to the stabilization of EEG rhythms. On the contrary, increased hyperventilation of the lungs, causing a shift in blood pH to the alkaline side, sharply disrupts EEG rhythms. Decreased breathing during meditation is not accompanied by hypoxia, since delta and theta waves appear and dominate on the EEG during oxygen starvation.

The complex use of breathing exercises and meditation leads to an increase in hemoglobin levels, a decrease in blood pH, and moderate inhibition of diencephalic structures is noted on the EEG. Also, a decrease in cholesterol in the blood serum is recorded, both with short and long periods of meditation (classical yoga techniques).

Wellness aspects. Yoga exercises are distinguished by purposefulness and high selectivity of their physiological influence on the internal organs and regulatory systems of the body. This leads to great opportunities for their use for recreational purposes.

Yoga asanas represent a system of alternating a certain tension and relaxation of the muscles (the degree of relaxation is extremely high), maximum compression and subsequent stretching and relaxation of the internal organs.

As a result, yoga exercises have a special massaging effect on muscle groups and structures of internal organs, as well as endocrine glands, which is absent with superficial manual manipulations in therapeutic and health-improving classical massage. The receptors of pressure, touch and thermoreceptors during the performance of asanas are also very strongly irritated.

At the level of segments of the spinal cord, visceral and cutaneous afferent pathways are convergently switched in the posterior horn, which leads to general sensory effects within the Zakharyin-Ged zones through visceromotor and cutaneous-visceral reflexes. These reflexes can be involved in the same way as a physiotherapeutic massage of the reflexogenic zones, and exercise yoga. Reactive hyperemia that occurs after performing some asanas with pressure on certain parts of the body, through segmental skin-visceral reflexes, leads to an increase in blood supply and stimulation of the smooth muscles of the corresponding internal organs.

In addition, when certain yoga poses are performed with a significant short-term static tension of certain muscle groups (Peacock posture, etc.), a negative induction and inhibition of a number of autonomic functions occur in the central nervous system. After the cessation of the static effort, inhibited physiological processes are carried out at a higher level (the Lindgard phenomenon). In particular, gastric acidity and gastric evacuation are normalized, the number of leukocytes increases, and blood clotting increases sharply.

At the same time, studies have shown that regular yoga exercises (with slight static muscle tension) help to reduce blood clotting. At the same time, fibrinolytic activity significantly increases with a simultaneous decrease in the level of fibrinogen, the duration of the period of partial thromboplastin activity and the period of platelet aggregation increases, the level of platelets in the blood and plasma increases, and the level of hemoglobin and hematocrit also increases. In this regard, there is a positive role of yoga in the prevention of cardiovascular and thrombotic diseases.

The use of yoga system exercises promotes regression in coronary lesions and improves myocardial function, counteracts the development of stress reactions, reduces blood cholesterol (by 23%) and restores the function of the vascular endothelium in individuals with pathological changes in the coronary arteries, thereby providing endothelial-dependent vasodilation. According to the Harvard step test, after 2 months of yoga exercises, a more favorable reaction of the cardiovascular system to standard physical activity is recorded. There is a positive effect of yoga exercises in hypertensive conditions.

The hypotensive effect of static loads is due to their positive effect on the autonomic centers, followed by a depressor reaction (1 hour after exercise, blood pressure drops by more than 20 mm Hg). Yoga relaxation exercises and meditation have also been found to significantly reduce blood pressure. Performing relaxation exercises, together with physical ones, significantly lowers blood pressure.

Along with hypertension, there is a high efficiency of the complex use of yoga exercises (inverted postures, breathing and relaxation) in bronchial asthma. Regularly engaged in significant shifts towards the norm of the peak values of the air flow velocity during expiration. Healing effect inverted yoga poses varicose veins veins of the legs is due not only to mechanical facilitation of the outflow of blood, but, first of all, to an improvement in vascular tone, caused by a reflex change in the tone of the veins during raising and subsequent lowering of the lower extremities.

Changing the body position when performing yoga poses has a wide range of effects on the physiological characteristics of the body. The horizontal position leads to a change in the composition of the blood (the content of seroproteins decreases), and also contributes to increased urination (even in the case of a reduced amount of water in the body by limiting drinking and vasopressin injections).

Passive tilts of the body head down revealed changes in ventilation and gas exchange in the lungs, blood gas composition, elasticity of the lungs and chest, as well as changes in the function of the hormonal system, digestive organs, hemodynamics, thermoregulation, and the process of sweating. When performing inverted postures, a restructuring of the total lung capacity (TLC) structure was registered as a mechanism for adapting the respiratory function to muscle activity, which affected the efficiency of alveolar ventilation.

At the same time, the same volume of lung ventilation could (depending on the mechanism of locomotion - the characteristics of the asana) be used with a greater or lesser degree of efficiency for the process of blood oxygenation. Thus, by changing the external structure of the body position, it is possible to purposefully influence various autonomic functions. The physiological essence and practical healing value of yoga poses lies in the fact that they use the principle of specificity of the vegetative effect of various poses, depending on their external structure.

The ability to voluntarily control body temperature under the influence of yoga classes is of great practical importance in various pathological conditions. A short-term significant increase in body temperature prevents the reproduction of many infectious pathogens (cocci, spirochetes, viruses) and positively affects a number of body functions (the intensity of phagocytosis increases, the production of antibodies is stimulated, the production of interferons, etc.) increases.

An arbitrary increase in the temperature of the whole body by experienced yogis is not accompanied by intoxication and damage to vital organs. Studies have found that followers of the Tam-po (heat) yoga direction can increase the temperature of the fingers and toes by 8.3ºС. Such temperature changes are associated with changes in the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and reflex mechanisms that determine the state of metabolism and the intensity of peripheral circulation.

Promising are developments on the use of means and methods of the yoga system to improve functional state and lifestyle changes for people (including children) with HIV/AIDS (anti-carcinogenic nutrition, improvement of external and cellular respiration, improvement of blood parameters, control of cardiovascular, endocrine, allergic and stress reactions). The role of yoga in counteracting physical and mental stress, depression and various neuropsychiatric disorders has been noted by many authors. The relationship between the psycho-emotional state and the functional state of the immune system was revealed. Immune suppression during stress is primarily associated with a violation of the T-cell link of the system, presumably due to the low resistance of T-lymphocytes to glucocorticoid hormones.

Practitioners of meditation showed a significant increase in the relative number of T-helpers and a decrease in T-suppressors, an increase in the average ratio of helpers to suppressors. The relative number of T-lymphocytes and T-active lymphocytes also increased. The anti-stress effect of yoga exercises is partly based on a decrease in the blood serum of the “stress hormones” of the adrenal cortex (for those practicing meditation, cortisol by 25%). There are indications that mental stress increases oxidative stress, which contributes to the aging process and various chronic degenerative diseases.

After an outpatient course of physical (asanas), breathing and relaxation yoga exercises, a statistically significant decrease in the blood serum concentration of one of the indicators of oxidative stress - TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) was noted. Improving the antioxidant status helps in preventing many pathological processes that are caused by the weakening of the body's antioxidant system.

In individuals with reduced resistance to hypoxia, a decrease in the fund of the endogenous antioxidant SOD (superoxide dismutase), a key enzyme in the antioxidant defense of erythrocytes, is observed. With the systematic implementation of yoga breathing exercises, a significant decrease in the number of free radicals, an increase in SOD, and an improvement in the body's antioxidant system are noted. It was also found that with the complex use of physical, breathing and relaxation yoga exercises in children school age and students increase (by 43%) memory test scores.

Illustrated presentation on nervous system - download

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